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Neuroscience

Neuroscience

Neuroscience, also known as neurobiology, is the scientific study of the nervous system. It is an interdisciplinary science, including physiology, anatomy, molecular biology, developmental biology, cell biology, physics, computer science, chemistry and mathematical modeling, used to understand the basic and emergent properties of neurons, glial cells and neural circuits. Understanding the biological foundations of learning, memory, behavior, perception and consciousness has been described by Eric Kandel as an "epic challenge" in the biological sciences.

The techniques used by neuroscientists have greatly expanded, from molecular and cellular studies of individual neurons to neuroscience-wide imaging of sensory, motor, and cognitive tasks, and over time the scope of neuroscience has expanded to include different methods used to study nervous systems at different scales.

Typical neuron structure

Contemporary Neurosurgery

Scientific research on the nervous system increased significantly in the second half of the 20th century, mainly due to advances in molecular biology, electrophysiology, and computational neuroscience. This allows neuroscientists to study every aspect of the nervous system: its structure, how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it changes.

For example, the complex processes that take place within a single neuron can be understood in greater detail. Neurons are specialized cells for communication. They can communicate with neurons and other cell types through special connections called synapses, where electrical or electrochemical signals can be transmitted from one cell to another. Many neurons extrude a thin thread of Axoplasm called an axon, which may extend to further parts of the body and is capable of rapidly carrying electrical signals that can affect the activity of other neurons, muscles or glands at their termination points. The nervous system emerges from a collection of interconnected neurons.

The vertebrate nervous system can be divided into two parts: the central nervous system (defined as the brain and spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system. In many species, including all vertebrates, the nervous system is the most complex organ system in the body, and much of that complexity resides in the brain. The human brain alone contains about 100 billion neurons and 100 trillion synapses; It consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, interconnected in synaptic networks, whose complexity is only beginning to be unraveled. Of the approximately 20,000 genes belonging to the human genome, at least one-third are expressed primarily in the brain.

List of the Major Branches of Neuroscience

Branch	Description
Affective Neuroscience	Affective neuroscience is the study of the neural mechanisms associated with emotion.
Behavioral Neuroscience	Behavioral neuroscience (also known as biological psychology, physiological psychology, or psychobiology) is the discipline that applies biological principles to the study of the genetic, physiological, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and non-human animals.
Cellular Neuroscience	Cellular neuroscience is the study of the morphological and physiological properties of neurons at the cellular level.
Clinical Neuroscience	Scientific research into the biological mechanisms of nervous system disorders and diseases.
Cognitive Neuroscience	Cognitive neuroscience is the study of the biological mechanisms of cognition.
Computational Neuroscience	Computational neuroscience is the theoretical study of the nervous system.
Developmental Neuroscience	Developmental neuroscience studies the processes that generate, shape and remodel the nervous system and seeks to characterize the cellular basis of neural development to understand underlying mechanisms.
Evolutionary Neuroscience	Evolutionary neuroscience studies the evolution of the nervous system.
Molecular Neuroscience	Molecular neuroscience uses molecular biology, molecular genetics, protein chemistry, and related methods to study the nervous system.
Neural Engineering	Neural engineering utilizes engineering techniques to interact with the nervous system to understand, repair, replace or enhance the nervous system.
Neuroanatomy	Neuroanatomy is the anatomical study of the nervous system.
Neurochemistry	Neurochemistry is the study of how neurochemicals interact and affect the function of neurons.
Systems Neuroscience	Systems neuroscience is the study of neural circuits and function of the nervous system.
Neuroethology	Neuroethology is a discipline that studies animal behavior and its nervous system mechanisms through evolutionary and comparative methods.
Neurogenetics	Neurogenetics studies the genetic basis of nervous system development and function.
Neuroimaging	Neuroimaging broadly refers to techniques capable of directly or indirectly imaging the functional, structural and pharmacological properties of the nervous system (mainly the brain).
Neuroimmunology	Neuroimmunology focuses on the interaction between the nervous system and the immune system.
Neuroinformatics	Neuroinformatics integrates various attempts to simulate the nervous system by applying computational methods and concepts in the modeling and analysis of the nervous system.
Neurolinguistics	Neurolinguistics is the study of the human brain's neural understanding, production and acquisition of language.
Neurophysiology	Neurophysiology studies the functional mechanism of the nervous system.
Neuropsychology	Neuropsychology mainly studies the structure and function of the brain, and studies the relationship between brain tissue and psychological phenomena such as speech, thinking, intelligence, and behavior from the perspective of anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry.
Neurotoxicology	Neurotoxicology studies neurotoxins.

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